Targeted alteration of DNA

ABSTRACT

The current invention relates to a method for targeted alteration of acceptor DNA, for example duplex acceptor DNA. The method comprises the use of an oligonucleotide having at least one mismatch relative to the targeted (duplex) acceptor DNA. The mismatch is located at specific positions within said oligonucleotide. Also provided is a kit that comprises instructions for performing the method according to the inventions, and in a preferred embodiment, comprises an oligonucleotide suitable for use in the method.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a national stage filing under 35 U.S.C. §371 of International Application No. PCT/NL20111050804, filed on Nov. 25, 2011, and claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/419,179, filed on Dec. 2, 2010, and of Dutch Application No. 2005808, filed on Dec. 3, 2010. All of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The current invention relates to a method for targeted alteration of acceptor DNA, for example duplex acceptor DNA. The method comprises the use of an oligonucleotide having at least one mismatch relative to the targeted (duplex) acceptor DNA. The mismatch is located at specific positions within said oligonucleotide. Also provided is a kit that comprises instructions for performing the method according to the inventions, and in a preferred embodiment, comprises an oligonucleotide suitable for use in the method.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Genetic modification is the process of deliberately creating changes in the genetic material of living cells. Often the purpose is to modify a genetically encoded biological property of that cell, or of the organism of which the cell forms part or into which it can regenerate. These changes can take the form of deletion of parts of the genetic material, addition of exogenous genetic material, or changes in the existing nucleotide sequence of the genetic material, for example by substituting one nucleotide for another.

Methods for the genetic modification of eukaryotic organisms have been known for over 20 years, and have found widespread application in plant, human and animal cells and microorganisms for improvements in the fields of agriculture, human health, food quality and environmental protection.

A common genetic modification methodology consists of adding exogenous DNA fragments to the genome of a cell, which may then confer a new property to that cell or its organism over and above the properties encoded by already existing genes (including applications in which the expression of existing genes will thereby be suppressed).

Although these methods may have some effectiveness in providing the desired properties to a target, these methods are nevertheless not very precise. There is, for example, no control over the genomic positions in which the exogenous DNA fragments are inserted (and hence over the ultimate levels of expression). In addition, the desired effect will have to manifest itself over the natural properties encoded by the original and well-balanced genome. On the contrary, methods of genetic modification that will result in the addition, deletion or conversion of nucleotides in predefined genomic loci will allow the precise and controllable modification of existing genes.

Oligonucleotide-directed Targeted Nucleotide Exchange (TNE) is a method that is based on the delivery into the eukaryotic cell of (synthetic) oligonucleotides (molecules consisting of short stretches of nucleotides and/or nucleotide-like moieties that resemble DNA in their Watson-Crick base pairing properties, but may be chemically different from DNA; (Alexeev and Yoon, 1998); (Rice et al., 2001); (Kmiec, 2003)).

By deliberately designing a mismatch nucleotide in the homology sequence of the oligonucleotide, the mismatch nucleotide may induce changes in the genomic DNA sequence to which the nucleotide may hybridize. This method allows the conversion of one or more nucleotides in the target, and may, for example, be applied to create stop codons in existing genes, resulting in a disruption of their function, or to create codon changes, resulting in genes encoding proteins with altered amino acid composition (protein engineering).

Targeted nucleotide exchange (TNE) has been described in many organisms including plant, animal and yeast cells and is also referred to as Oligonucleotide-directed Mutagenesis (ODM).

The first examples of TNE using chimeric DNA:RNA oligonucleotides came from animal cells (reviewed in (Igoucheva et al., 2001)). TNE using chimeric DNA:RNA oligonucleotides has also been demonstrated in plant cells (Beetham et al., 1999; Kochevenko and Willmitzer, 2003; Okuzaki and Toriyama, 2004; Zhu et al., 2000; Zhu et al., 1999). In general, the frequencies reported in both plant and animal studies were too low for practical application of TNE on non-selectable chromosomal loci. TNE using chimeric oligonucleotides was also found to be difficult to reproduce (Ruiter et al., 2003), resulting in a search for alternative oligonucleotide designs giving more reliable results.

Several laboratories have focused on the use of single stranded (ss) oligonucleotides for TNE. These have been found to give more reproducible results in both plant and animal cells (Liu et al., 2002) (Parekh-Olmedo et al., 2005) (Dong et al., 2006). However, the greatest problem facing the application of TNE in cells of, in particular, higher organisms such as plants remains the relative low efficiency that has been reported so far. In maize a conversion frequency of 1×10⁻⁴ has been reported (Zhu et al., 2000). Subsequent studies in tobacco (Kochevenko and Willmitzer, 2003) and rice (Okuzaki and Toriyama, 2004) have reported frequencies of 1×10⁻⁶ and 1×10⁻⁴ respectively.

TNE using various types of oligonucleotides has been the subject of various patent and patent applications including U.S. Pat. No. 6,936,467, U.S. Pat. No. 7,226,785, US579597, U.S. Pat. No. 6,136,601, US2003/0163849, US2003/0236208, WO03/013226, U.S. Pat. No. 5,594,121 and WO01/92512.

In U.S. Pat. No. 6,936,467 it is contemplated that the low efficiency of gene alteration obtained using unmodified DNA oligonucleotides is the result of degradation of the donor oligonucleotides by nucleases present in the reaction mixture or the target cell. It is proposed to incorporate modified nucleotides that render the resulting oligonucleotides (more) resistant against nucleases. These modifications are disclosed to preferably be located at the ends of the oligonucleotide whereas the mismatch is present at least 8 nucleotides from each terminal end.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,226,785 also discloses methods for targeted chromosomal genomic alterations using modified single-stranded oligonucleotides with at least one modified nuclease-resistant terminal region. TNE using modified single stranded oligonucleotides is also the subject of WO02/26967.

Because of the low efficiency of the current methods of TNE there remains a need for alternative and/or better TNE techniques. These can be used alone or in combination with existing TNE techniques, like those disclosed above and in the art, to improve efficiency. Accordingly, the present inventors have set out to improve on the existing TNE technology.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Technical Problem

The technical problem identified in the art is that the current available methodology for introducing specific and desired genetic changes in cells, for example for introducing specific genetic changes in the genome present in a plant cell, are hindered by low efficiency, making the techniques laborious and costly. There is a need to come to alternative and better TNE techniques.

One of the problems to be solved is therefore to provide for an alternative and/or better and/or additional method for the introduction of genetic change(s) in the genetic information, such as duplex DNA sequences, as is present in cells. Preferably such method has improved efficiency in comparison to those described in the art. Such method would allow for the provision of cells with altered genetic information, more in particular for cells wherein a functionality of the cell has been changed by the introduction of the alteration in the target DNA. Such functionality may for example relate to altered properties of the protein encoded by a DNA sequence encompassing the DNA that has been altered by the method according to the invention.

The Solution to the Problem

The inventors have found a new method for targeted alteration of a duplex DNA sequence. The method uses a donor oligonucleotide comprising a domain that is capable of hybridizing to the target (under conditions that allow hybridization, as they are known to the skilled person). The donor nucleotide further comprises at least one mismatch in comparison to the targeted duplex DNA sequence, which mismatch is to be introduced in the targeted duplex DNA sequence.

Whereas in the art it is advocated and common knowledge that the mismatch should be present within the oligonucleotide, in other words “somewhere in the middle” of the oligonucleotide (see for example the various patent application discussed above, in particular U.S. Pat. No. 6,936,467 and U.S. Pat. No. 7,226,785), it has now surprisingly and unexpectedly been found that TNE can be performed with good efficiency when the mismatch is not located somewhere in the middle of the oligonucleotide but at specific locations. In particular it has been found that for efficient TNE the mismatch is located at most two, preferably at most one nucleotide from the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. Most preferably the at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the (ss) oligonucleotide.

In contrast to the general belief that any mismatch should be in a central part of the oligonucleotide, and that, for example, modifications at the 5′ end and the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide should be introduced to prevent premature degradation of the oligonucleotide by nucleases (see e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 6,936,467), it was now found that having a mismatch in the oligonucleotide zero, one or at most two nucleotide(s) from the 3′ end provides for an oligonucleotide that can advantageously be used in methods of targeted nucleotide exchange, i.e. in methods for targeted alteration of a duplex DNA sequence.

In addition, the oligonucleotide comprising the at least one mismatch zero, one or at most two nucleotide(s) from the 3′ end may be further modified by the inclusion of modified nucleotides, i.e. nucleotides having a base modification, a backbone modification, a sugar modification and/or a modification at the 3′ end and/or 5′ end of said nucleotide. These modifications include well-known modifications to either improve binding/hybridization of the oligonucleotide to the target sequence and/or to prevent or inhibit breakdown of the oligonucleotide by so-called nucleases. Examples of such modified nucleotides include locked nucleic acids, or nucleotides having phosphorothioate linkages. However, as shown in example 3, it is not required that the oligonucleotide incorporates nucleotides having phosphorotioate linkages nor is it required that the oligonucleotide incorporates any other type of modified nucleotide.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the nucleotide sequence of the GFP ORF containing a stop codon (SEQ ID NO:1).

FIG. 2 shows the amino acid sequence of the GFP-STOP protein, with the position of the stop codon represented by the asterisk (SEQ ID NO:2).

FIG. 3 is a schematic overview of the constructs used in this study.

FIG. 4 shows the repair of episomal GFP by different oligonucleotides, tested in at least three independent experiments.

FIG. 5 shows the nucleotide sequence of the YFP-STOP construct. The nucleotide at position 186 has been altered (C to A), resulting in an in-frame stop codon (SEQ ID NO:3).

FIG. 6 shows the protein sequence of the YFP-STOP. The position of the stop codon in the protein in indicated by an asterisk (SEQ ID NO:4).

FIG. 7 shows the TNE on episomal YFP plasmid in tomato protoplasts. 7460 shows the transformation efficiency using just the wild type YFP gene. 7461+PB212 indicates the repair efficiency when the 35S YFP-STOP construct was co-introduced into tomato protoplasts together with oligonucleotide PB212.

FIG. 8 shows that a oligonucleotide according to the invention, even without any modification like PS linkages, increases TNE efficiency.

DEFINITIONS

In the following description and examples, a number of terms are used. In order to provide a clear and consistent understanding of the specification and claims, including the scope to be given such terms, the following definitions are provided. Unless otherwise defined herein, all technical and scientific terms used have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The disclosures of all publications, patent applications, patents and other references are incorporated herein in their entirety by reference.

As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, a method for isolating “a” DNA molecule, as used above, includes isolating a plurality of molecules (e.g. 10's, 100's, 1000's, 10's of thousands, 100's of thousands, millions, or more molecules).

Methods of carrying out the conventional techniques used in methods of the invention will be evident to the skilled worker. The practice of conventional techniques in molecular biology, biochemistry, computational chemistry, cell culture, recombinant DNA, bioinformatics, genomics, sequencing and related fields are well-known to those of skill in the art and are discussed, for example, in the following literature references: Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning. A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989; Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987 and periodic updates; and the series Methods in Enzymology, Academic Press, San Diego.

A nucleic acid according to the present invention may include any polymer or oligomer of pyrimidine and purine bases, preferably cytosine, thymine, and uracil, and adenine and guanine, respectively (See Albert L. Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, at 793-800 (Worth Pub. 1982) which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes). The present invention contemplates any deoxyribonucleotide, ribonucleotide or peptide nucleic acid component, and any chemical variants thereof, such as methylated, hydroxymethylated or glycosylated forms of these bases, and the like. The polymers or oligomers may be heterogenous or homogenous in composition, and may be isolated from naturally occurring sources or may be artificially or synthetically produced. In addition, the nucleic acids may be DNA or RNA, or a mixture thereof, and may exist permanently or transitionally in single-stranded or double-stranded form, including homoduplex, heteroduplex, and hybrid states. (Synthetic) oligonucleotide: single-stranded DNA molecules having preferably from about 5 to about 150 bases, which can be synthesized chemically are referred to as synthetic oligonucleotides. In general, these synthetic DNA molecules are designed to have a unique or desired nucleotide sequence, although it is possible to synthesize families of molecules having related sequences and which have different nucleotide compositions at specific positions within the nucleotide sequence. The term synthetic oligonucleotide will be used to refer to DNA molecules having a designed or desired nucleotide sequence. “Targeted Nucleotide Exchange” or “TNE”. Targeted nucleotide exchange (TNE) is a process by which a synthetic oligonucleotide, at least partially complementary to a site in a chromosomal or an episomal gene directs the reversal of a nucleotide at a specific site. TNE has been described using a wide variety of oligonucleotides and targets. Some of the reported oligonucleotides are RNA/DNA chimeras, contain terminal modifications to impart nuclease resistance.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS

In one aspect, the invention pertains to a method for targeted alteration of a duplex acceptor DNA sequence.

The method comprises combining a/the duplex acceptor DNA sequence with a donor oligonucleotide. The oligonucleotide comprises a domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence (under conditions that allow hybridization, as known to the skilled person). The domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence comprises at least one mismatch with respect to the first DNA sequence. Said at least one mismatch is positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide. Most preferably said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

The method according to the invention allows for the specific and selective alteration of one or more nucleotides at (a) specific site(s) of an acceptor DNA sequence by means of oligonucleotides. In particular the targeted alteration can be performed within a target cell containing the duplex acceptor DNA sequence by the introduction into that cell of an oligonucleotide according to the invention, i.e. having, in comparison to the first DNA sequence, at least one mismatch and wherein said at least one mismatch is positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide. Most preferably said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. The result of the method is the targeted alteration of one or more nucleotides so that the sequence of the target DNA sequence is altered. The invention may preferably be performed in vivo but may also be performed ex vivo or in vitro.

Within the context of the current invention, the duplex DNA sequence comprises a first DNA sequence and a second DNA sequence. The second DNA sequence is the complement of the first DNA sequence and pairs to it to form the duplex. For example, a complement of a first DNA sequence ATTT (in the 5′ to 3′ direction) is TAAA (in the 3′ to 5′ direction). This second DNA sequence pairs with the first DNA sequence to form a duplex. In case the duplex DNA sequence is, for example, part of a gene, the first DNA sequence may be either on the sense strand or anti-sense strand.

The DNA of the duplex DNA sequence may be any type of DNA, such as genomic DNA, DNA derived from genomic DNA, linear DNA, artificial chromosomes, nuclear chromosomal DNA, organellar DNA, BACs, YACs, plasmid DNA, episomal DNA. The DNA sequence may be part of an intron or an exon, coding or non-coding, regulating expression or not.

The oligonucleotide used in the method disclosed herein is preferably single stranded and comprises at least one domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence. The at least one mismatch with respect to the duplex DNA sequence to be altered and which mismatch is positioned 0, 1 or 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide, is either comprised in the domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence of is directly adjacent to the domain.

The at least one domain may thus comprise at least one mismatch with respect to the duplex DNA sequence to be altered or is directly next/adjacent to the mismatch. In other words, the oligonucleotide comprises a domain consisting of adjacent nucleotides than can hybridize, under the conditions of the experiment, with the first DNA sequence of the duplex acceptor DNA sequence, and either comprises a mismatch with respect to said first DNA sequence or the mismatch is positioned directly next to said domain (and wherein the mismatch is positioned 0, 1 or 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide).

For example, if the domain is (in the 5′ to 3′ direction) positioned up to 3 nucleotides from the 3′ end, the mismatch may be directly next to the domain 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

For example if the domain is (in the 5′ to 3′ direction) positioned up to 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end, the mismatch can be comprised in the domain, e.g. localized 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end, of be directly adjacent to the domain, i.e. localized 0 nucleotides from the 3′ end, in other words at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

It is to be understood by the skilled person that within the context of the current invention, and where reference is made to the mismatch or the mismatch comprised in the domain that is capable of hybridizing with the first DNA sequence, these include any mismatch comprised in the domain or positioned directly adjacent to the domain, as long as the mismatch is positioned 2, 1 or 0 nucleotides from the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

In certain embodiments the oligonucleotide comprises preferably no more than one mismatch. In certain embodiments, more than one mutation can be introduced into the target DNA, either simultaneously or successively. The oligonucleotide can accommodate more than one mismatch on either adjacent or on removed locations on the oligonucleotide. In certain embodiments the oligonucleotide can comprise two, three, four or more mismatch nucleotides which may be adjacent or remote (i.e. non-adjacent). The oligonucleotide can comprise further domains to accommodate this. The mismatches may be in the same or in different domains.

It will be understood by the skilled person that the oligonucleotide according to the invention may further comprise non-hybridizing parts, in other words adjacent nucleotides that do not hybridize with the first DNA sequence, for example as these parts are not complementary to any sequence in the first DNA sequence.

In a preferred embodiment the oligonucleotide comprises one domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence and comprises, or is directly adjacent to at least one mismatch, preferable one mismatch, with respect to the duplex DNA sequence to be altered. In such embodiment the oligonucleotide may, in principal, comprise more than one domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence, however only one of the domains may comprise, or be directly adjacent to, the at least one mismatch (or the one mismatch), as disclosed herein. In another preferred embodiment the oligonucleotide comprises only one domain that can hybridize to the duplex DNA. Such domain is located near or at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide and includes the mismatch, or is directly adjacent to the mismatch.

The oligonucleotides that are used as donors in the method disclosed herein can vary in length but generally vary in length between 10 and 500 nucleotides, with a preference for 11 to 100 nucleotides, preferably from 15 to 90, more preferably from 20 to 70.

The domain may consist of at least 5 nucleotides, including the mismatch, but may also consist of all nucleotides, including the mismatch, of the oligonucleotide. In case the mismatch is directly adjacent to the domain, the domain may consist of at least 5 nucleotides, but may also consist of all nucleotides of the oligonucleotide, except for the mismatch. Domain(s) in the oligonucleotide are typically in the order of at least 5, 10, preferably 15, 20, 25 or 30 nucleotides.

The oligonucleotide according to the invention comprises at least one mismatch that is positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide. Most preferably said (at least one) mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. A person skilled in the art understands what the term 3′ end encompasses. A single-stranded non-circular DNA molecule has two ends, the 3′ end and the 5′ end (also referred to as “three prime end” and “five prime end”).

The 5′ end of a single strand nucleic acid designates that specific nucleotide of which the C-5 carbon atom forms the terminal carbon atom of the sugar-phosphate backbone. The C-5 carbon atom may or may not be linked to a phosphate group by a phosphodiester bond, but this phosphate group in turn does not form any linkage with another nucleotide. The 3′ end of a single strand nucleic acid designates that specific nucleotide of which the C-3 carbon atom, is not linked to any other nucleotides, whether by means of a phosphate diester bond or otherwise.

The C-5 atom is the 5^(th) carbon atom of the ribose or deoxyribose molecule and does not form part of the furanose ring, starting counting from the C atom directly adjacent to both the oxygen of the furanose ring and the nucleobase. The C-3 atom is the 3^(rd) carbon atom of the ribose or deoxyribose molecule and forms part of the furanose ring, starting counting from 1 which is the C atom directly adjacent to both the oxygen of the furanose ring and the nucleobase.

The term “mismatch positioned 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end” indicates that the mismatch is two nucleotides from the nucleotide at the 3′ terminus of the oligonucleotide. The term “mismatch positioned 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end” indicates that the mismatch is one nucleotide from the nucleotide at the 3′ terminus of the oligonucleotide. The term “mismatch positioned 0 nucleotides from the 3′ end” indicates that the mismatch is the nucleotide at the 3′ terminus of the oligonucleotide.

In certain embodiments the donor oligonucleotide used in the method according to the invention is complementary to the first DNA sequence with the exception of the at least one mismatch, for example with the exception to one, two, three or four mismatches in the oligonucleotide.

In certain preferred embodiments the oligonucleotide is complementary to the first DNA sequence over the entire length of the oligonucleotide except for the one mismatch positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. In another embodiment, the oligonucleotide is (in the 5′ to 3′ direction) complementary to the first DNA sequence over the entire length of the oligonucleotide up to the position of the mismatch (localized 2, 1 or 0 nucleotides from the 3′ end).

In certain embodiments the oligonucleotide used in the method according to the invention comprises at least one section that contains at least one modified nucleotide having a base modification, a 3′ and/or 5′ end base modification, a backbone modification or a sugar modification.

The base modification, 3′ and/or 5′ end base modifications, backbone modification, and/or sugar modifications can be incorporated into the oligonucleotides to increase the (binding/hybridization) affinity of the oligonucleotides to the target sequence and, either independently or additionally, to increase the oligonucleotides resistance against cellular nucleases. However, as shown in example 3, it is not required that the oligonucleotide incorporates any modified nucleotide.

Any modification of a nucleotide in an oligonucleotide that provides an oligonucleotide suitable for use in the method according to the invention (and comprising at least one mismatch positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide) can advantageously be used. It will be understood by the skilled person that a modification is relative to any one of a naturally occurring A, C, T, G nucleotides.

Advantageously, although not essential to the invention, the oligonucleotide for use in the method according to the invention may comprise modified nucleotides that increase the resistance of the oligonucleotide against cellular nucleases, if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides. These modifications may include base modifications, backbone modifications, and/or sugar modifications. Typically, such modified nucleotides that increase the resistance of the oligonucleotide against cellular nucleases may result in an increased stability of the oligonucleotide in a cellular environment, which may result in improved targeted nucleotide exchange. Preferably, the oligonucleotide for use according to the method of the invention comprises at least 1, preferably at least 2, more preferably at least 4, more preferably at least 6, most preferably at least 8 modified nucleotides that increase the resistance of the oligonucleotide against cellular nucleases if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides. Alternatively, or at the same time, the oligonucleotide for use according to the method of the invention comprises at most 25, preferably at most 20, more preferably at most 15, most preferably at most 10 modified nucleotides that increase the resistance of the oligonucleotide against cellular nucleases if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides. Such modified nucleotides may be positioned at any position within the oligonucleotide, preferably within 20 nucleotides, preferably within 15, more preferably within 10, even more preferably within 8, even more preferably within 6 nucleotides from the 3′ end and/or 5′ end of the oligonucleotide, and most preferably at the last nucleotides at the 3′ end and/or at the last nucleotides at the 5′ end. As the mismatch which is to be incorporated in the target DNA sequence is located zero, one, or at most two nucleotide(s) from the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide, it is particularly preferred that such modified nucleotide(s) protect the 3′ side against cellular nucleases and thus are positioned on the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide, such as within 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, or 4 nucleotides from the 3′ end. However, as described earlier, and as shown in example 3, it is not essential to the invention that the oligonucleotide indeed includes modified nucleotides that increase resistance of the oligonucleotide against cellular nucleases.

Various of such modified nucleotides are mentioned herein, which increase the resistance of the oligonucleotide against cellular nucleases if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides and which may be incorporated in the oligonucleotide for use in the method according to the invention. Such modified nucleotide may be a nucleotide having phosphorothioate linkage(s), but may also be a phosphoramidite, a methylphosphonate, or a nucleotide with nonphosphate internucleotide bonds such as carbonates, carbamates, siloxane, sulfonamides and polyamide nucleic acid. Also, the modified nucleotides conferring cellular nuclease resistance as described in WO0226967 may be used, such as LNA (Locked Nucleic Acid), or any other modified nucleotide that improves cellular nuclease resistance of the oligonucleotide as known by the skilled person.

Alternatively or additionally to the above-described nuclease resistance conferring modified nucleotides, the oligonucleotide for use in the method according to the invention may comprise modified nucleotides having a higher binding affinity to the target DNA sequence if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides. These modification may include base modifications, backbone modifications, and/or sugar modifications. Typically, such modified nucleotides having increased binding affinity will affect stronger base-pairing with the target sequence, which may result in an increased stability of the hybrid between the oligonucleotide and the target sequence, which is believed to result in improved targeted nucleotide exchange. Preferably, the oligonucleotide for use according to the method of the invention comprises at least 1-10, preferably 1-8, more preferably 1-6, even more preferably 1-4, such as 1, 2, 3, or 4, even more preferably 2 modified nucleotides having a higher binding affinity to the target DNA sequence if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides. Such modified nucleotides as mentioned above may be positioned at any position within the oligonucleotide, preferably at a position one nucleotide away from the mismatch, preferably at most 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 nucleotides away from the mismatch. Preferably, such modified nucleotide is located at the 5′ side of the mismatch, but it may also be opted to position such modified nucleotide at the 3′ side of the mismatch if the mismatch is not positioned at the last nucleotide at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

Various examples of such modified nucleotides having a higher binding affinity to the target DNA sequence if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides are mentioned herein which may be incorporated in the oligonucleotide for use in the method according to the invention, including 2-OMe substitution, LNA (Locked Nucleic Acid), ribonucleotide, superA, superT, or any other type of modified nucleotide that improves binding affinity of the oligonucleotide to the target DNA sequence if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, and G nucleotides, as known by the skilled person.

Determining whether a modified nucleotide confers increased resistance against cellular nucleases if compared to naturally occurring A, T, G, C nucleotides may for example be done by comparing half-life times of a oligonucleotide having said modified nucleotide with a oligonucleotide not having said modified nucleotide, in the presence of cellular nucleases as e.g. present in tomato extract, tomato cells, or E. coli. If the half-life time of the first mentioned is higher, said modified nucleotide confers increased resistance against cellular nucleases if compared to naturally occurring A, T, G, C nucleotides. Determining whether a modified nucleotide confers higher binding affinity to the target DNA sequence if compared to naturally occurring A, T, C, or G nucleotides may for example be done by comparing melting temperature (Tm) of the duplex formed between the oligonucleotide having said modified nucleotide and its target over that formed by the oligonucleotide not having said modified nucleotide and its target. If the melting temperature of the first mentioned is higher, said modified nucleotide confers higher binding affinity to the target DNA sequence if compared to naturally occurring A, T, G, C nucleotides.

A section according to the present invention is to be understood to be any part of the oligonucleotide with a length of at least one nucleotide. For example, a section may comprise 1-10, preferably 1-6, more preferably 1-4, more preferably 1-2 nucleotides, and may be positioned at the 3′ side and/or the 5′ side of the mismatch. The at least one section can be part of a domain according to the invention; in other words the section may be in a domain that can hybridize with the first DNA sequence. Alternatively, the section may overlap with a domain, either completely or partially. In case of complete overlap the section may have the same length of the domain, but may also have a length with exceeds the length of the domain. In the case of partial overlap, the domain and the section share at least one nucleotide.

Depending on the type of modification used in the oligonucleotide there may be a preference for the modified nucleotide to be part of a domain that can hybridize with the first DNA sequence, and which domain comprises or is directly adjacent to the at least one mismatch positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide. This is in particular the case for modified nucleotides with a higher binding affinity compared to naturally occurring A, C, T or G nucleotides with its complementary nucleotide.

Base modifications include, but are not limited to such modifications as for example described in WO0226967, including modifications at the C-5 position of pyrimidines such as 2′-deoxyuridine, 5-fluoro-2′-deoxyuridine, 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine and 5-methyl-2′-deoxycytidine. Other base modifications include synthetic and natural nucleobases like 5-methylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethyl cytosine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, 2-aminoadenine, 6-methyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-propyl and other alkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-thiouracil, 2-thiothymine, 2-thiocytosine, 5-halouracil and cytosine, 5-propynyl uracil and cytosine, 6-azo uracil, cytosine and thymine, 5-uracil, 4-thiouracil, 8-halo, 8-amino, 8-thiol, 8-thioalkyl, 8-hydroxyl and other 8-substituted adenines and guanines, 5-halo particularly 5-bromo, 5-trifluoromethyl and other 5-substituted uracils and cytosines, 7-methylguanine and 7-methyladenine, 8-azaguanine and 8-azaadenine, 7-deazaguanine and 7-deazaadenine and 3-deazaguanine and 3-deazaadenine.

End (3′ and/or 5′) modifications may include 2′-O-methyl bases, 3′ amine groups, phosphorothioate linkages, or any other modification that is nuclease resistant. The skilled person is well aware of these kinds of modifications. Providing resistance to nuclease is believed to further improve the targeted nucleotide exchange.

Various backbone modifications, such as those mentioned in WO0226967, including phosphorothioates, phosphoramidites and methylphosphonates, and those with nonphosphate internucleotide bonds, such as carbonates, carbamates, siloxane, sulfonamides and polyamide nucleic acid will increase the resistance to cellular nucleases. Such backbone modifications are therefore useful in the oligonucleotide used in the method according to the invention.

In addition, sugar modifications, including but not limited to 2′-O-methyl, 2′-fluoro or 2′-methoxyethoxy can increase the thermodynamic stability of a formed duplex, and at the same time provide improved nuclease resistance.

Other examples of suitable modifications are described in WO2007073149. Modification of the donor oligonucleotides can for example comprise phosphorothioate linkages, 2-OMe substitutions, the use of LNAs (Locked nucleic acids), ribonucleotide and other bases that modify and preferably enhance, the stability of the hybrid between the oligonucleotide and the acceptor stand either by improving affinity binding to the target DNA or by inhibition of nuclease activity, or both.

All these types of modifications are well know to the skilled person and are readily available from various commercial sources.

In an embodiment there is provided for a method according to the invention wherein a modified nucleotide is incorporated in the oligonucleotide and wherein the modified nucleotide has a higher binding affinity compared to naturally occurring A, C, T, or G nucleotides with its complementary nucleotide, and wherein the modified nucleotide binds stronger to a nucleotide in the opposite position in the first DNA sequence as compared to a naturally occurring nucleotide complementary to the nucleotide in the opposite position in the first DNA sequence and/or wherein the modified nucleotide is a nuclease resistant nucleotide.

Preferably the modification is a base modification, a 3′ end and/or 5′ end base modification, a backbone modification or a sugar modification. As discussed above, the donor oligonucleotides according to the invention may contain modifications to improve the hybridization characteristics such that the donor exhibits increased affinity for the target DNA strand, which may make intercalation of the donor easier and/or increases the thermodynamic stability of the formed duplex (in comparison to the same oligonucleotide not comprising such modification, and under the same experimental circumstances). The donor oligonucleotide can independently or in addition be modified to become more resistant against nucleases, which may stabilize the duplex structure.

In the prior art a wide variety of modified nucleotides having a higher binding affinity compared to naturally occurring A, C, T, or G nucleotides with its complementary nucleotide, and wherein the modified nucleotide binds stronger to a nucleotide in the opposite position in the first DNA sequence as compared to a naturally occurring nucleotide complementary to the nucleotide in the opposite position in the first DNA sequence and/or wherein the modified nucleotide is a nuclease resistant nucleotide have been described (see for Example WO 2007073154 and the various modifications discussed above).

In certain embodiments, a modification is at a position one nucleotide away from to the mismatch, preferably 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 nucleotides away from the mismatch. In certain embodiments, modification is located at a position downstream from the mismatch. In certain embodiments, modification is located at a position upstream from the mismatch.

The domain that contains or is directly adjacent to the mismatch and the sections containing the modified nucleotide(s) may be overlapping. Thus, in certain embodiments, the domain containing the mismatch or directly adjacent to the mismatch is located at a different position on the oligonucleotide than the section of which the modification is considered. In certain embodiments, the domain incorporates one or more sections. In certain embodiments, sections can incorporate the domain. In certain embodiments, the domain and the sections may be located at the same position on the oligonucleotide and have the same length i.e. the sections coincide in length and position. In certain embodiments, there can be more than one section within a domain.

For the present invention, this means that the part of the oligonucleotide that contains the mismatch which is to alter the DNA duplex can be located at a different or shifted position from the part of the oligonucleotide that is modified.

In a preferred embodiment the modified nucleotide is selected from the group consisting of LNAs and/or nucleotides having phosphorothioate bonds.

In a preferred embodiment, the modified nucleotide is a Locked Nucleic Acid. Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA) is a DNA analogue with interesting properties for use in antisense gene therapy and is known to the skilled person.

LNAs are bicyclic and tricyclic nucleoside and nucleotide analogues and may be incorporated in oligonucleotides. The basic structural and functional characteristics of LNAs and related analogues are disclosed in various publications and patents, including WO99/14226, WO00/56748, WO00/66604, WO98/39352, U.S. Pat. No. 6,043,060, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,268,490, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

LNA nucleosides are available for all the common nucleobases (T, C, G, A, U; for example from Exiqon (www.exiqon.com)) and are able to form base pairs according to standard Watson-Crick base pairing rules. When incorporated into a DNA oligonucleotide, LNA makes the pairing with a complementary nucleotide strand more rapid and increases the stability of the resulting duplex. In other words, LNA combines the ability to discriminate between correct and incorrect targets (high specificity) with very high bio-stability (low turnover) and unprecedented affinity (very high binding strength to target). In fact, the affinity increase recorded with LNA leaves the affinities of all previously reported analogues in the low-to-modest range.

LNA is an RNA analogue, in which the ribose is structurally constrained by a methylene bridge between the 2′-oxygen and the 4′-carbon atoms. This bridge restricts the flexibility of the ribofuranose ring and locks the structure into a rigid bicyclic formation. This so-called N-type (or 3′-endo) conformation results in an increase in the Tm (melting temperature) of LNA containing duplexes, and consequently higher binding affinities and higher specificities. Importantly, the favorable characteristics of LNA do not come at the expense of other important properties as is often observed with nucleic acid analogues.

LNA can be mixed freely with all other chemistries that make up the DNA analogue universe. LNA bases can be incorporated into oligonucleotides as short all-LNA sequences or as longer LNA/DNA chimeras. LNAs can be placed in internal, 3′ or 5′-positions. However, due to their rigid bicyclic conformations, LNA residues sometimes disturb the helical twist of nucleic acid strands. It is hence generally less preferred to design an oligonucleotide with two or more adjacent LNA residues. Preferably, the LNA residues are separated by at least one (modified) nucleotide that does not disturb the helical twist, such as a conventional nucleotide (A, C, T, or G).

The originally developed and preferred LNA monomer (the [beta]-D-oxy-LNA monomer) has been modified into new LNA monomers. The novel [alpha]-L-oxy-LNA has been suggested to show superior stability against 3′ exonuclease activity, and is also more powerful and more versatile than [beta]-D-oxy-LNA in designing potent antisense oligonucleotides. Also xylo-LNAs, L-ribo LNAs and other LNA's can be used, as disclosed in WO9914226, WO00/56748, WO00/66604 and J. Org. Chem., 2010, 75 (7), pp 2341-2349. In the present invention, any LNA of the above types is effective in achieving the goals of the invention, i.e. improved efficiency of TNE, with a preference for [beta]-D-LNA analogues.

As mentioned above, preferably, an LNA is at least one nucleotide away from a mismatch in the oligonucleotide used in the method according to the invention. Although in the art on TNE, LNA modification has been listed amongst a list of possible oligonucleotide modifications as alternatives for the chimeric molecules used in TNE, it has been found that when single-stranded DNA oligonucleotides, as used in the method according to the invention, are modified to contain LNA, TNE efficiency increase significantly to the extent that has presently been found when the LNA is positioned at least one nucleotide away from the mismatch, even more preferably one nucleotide from the mismatch. The oligonucleotide preferably does not contain more than about 75% (rounded to the nearest whole number of nucleotides) LNAs.

In another preferred embodiment, the modified nucleotide comprises a nucleotide having a phosphorothioate linkage. Many of the nucleotide modifications commercially available have been developed for use in antisense applications for gene therapy. The simplest and most widely used nuclease-resistant chemistry available for antisense applications (the “first generation” antisense-oligonucleotide) is the phosphorothioate (PS) linkage. In these molecules, a sulfur atom replaces a non-bridging oxygen in the oligonucleotide phosphate backbone (see, for example, FIG. 2 of WO2007073154, resulting in resistance to endonuclease and exonuclease activity.

For gene therapy, a phosphorothioate/phosphodiester chimera generally has one to four PS-modified internucleoside linkages on both the 5′- and 3′-ends with a central core of unmodified DNA. The phosphorothioate bonds can be incorporated, however, at any desired location in the oligonucleotide.

Preferably the modified nucleotide is an LNA or, even more preferably a nucleotide having a phosphorothioate linkage, more preferably the modified oligonucleotide having at least one, for example, one, two, three or four, phosphorothioate(s). Preferably the oligonucleotide contains at least one phosphorothioate at or near (e.g. within 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 nucleotides from) the 5′ end of the oligonucleotide according to the invention.

In an embodiment there is provided that the oligonucleotide used in the method according to the invention comprises at least two, three, four, or five modified nucleotides. Preferably the oligonucleotide comprises two, three four or five modified nucleotides. Preferably the modifications are selected from the group consisting of LNAs and/or phosphorothioate bonds.

In certain preferred embodiments of the invention, the nucleotide in the oligonucleotide at the position of the mismatch can be modified. Whether or not the mismatch can be modified will depend to a large extent on the exact mechanism of the targeted nucleotide exchange or of the cell's DNA repair mechanism using the difference in affinity between the donor and acceptor strands. In a preferred embodiment the nucleotide at the position of the mismatch is not a modified nucleotide.

In an embodiment there is provided for a method according to the invention wherein the modified nucleotide is at least one nucleotide from the at least one mismatch located at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

As discussed previously, it has been found that when single-stranded DNA oligonucleotides, as used in the method according to the invention, are modified to contain modified nucleotides, for example LNA, TNE efficiency increases significantly to the extent that has presently been found when the modified nucleotide, preferably LNA, is positioned at least one nucleotide away from the mismatch, even more preferably one mismatch from the mismatch. In other words, in a preferred embodiment, a modified nucleotide, preferably a LNA, is separated from the mismatch by at least one other nucleotide, which at least one other nucleotide is not a LNA, preferably not a modified nucleotide. However, in case of for example a phosphorothioate linkage, such linkage by be directly adjacent to the mismatch nucleotide.

In an embodiment there is provided for a method, wherein the alteration of the duplex acceptor DNA is within a cell preferably selected from the group consisting of a prokaryotic cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a plant cell, an animal cell, a yeast cell, a fungal cell, a rodent cell, a human cell, a non-human cell, and/or a(n) (non-human) embryonic cell. The invention is, in its broadest form, generically applicable to all sorts of organisms such as humans, animals, plants, fish, reptiles, insects, fungi, bacteria and so on. The invention can thus be performed within a cell selected from the group consisting of a prokaryotic cell, a bacterial cell, a eukaryotic cell, a plant cell, an animal cell, a yeast cell, a fungal cell, a rodent cell, a human cell, a non-human cell, and/or an embryonic cell. In a preferred embodiment, the cell is a plant cell.

There is also provided for a method as described herein wherein the duplex acceptor DNA is obtained from a prokaryotic organism, bacteria, a eukaryotic organism, a plant, an animal, a yeast, a fungus, a rodent, or a human. In a preferred embodiment the duplex acceptor DNA is obtained from a plant (or is plant DNA present in a plant cell).

In an embodiment of the invention, the alteration of the duplex acceptor DNA sequence is a deletion, a substitution and/or an insertion of at least one nucleotide. Preferably the alteration of the duplex DNA sequence is a deletion, a substitution and/or an insertion of no more than 5 nucleotides, preferably no more than 4, 3, 2, 1 nucleotide(s), most preferably one nucleotide. More preferably the alteration of the duplex acceptor DNA sequence is a substitution of no more than 5 nucleotides, preferably no more than 4, 3, 2, 1 nucleotide(s), most preferably one nucleotide.

In another embodiment there is provided a method according to the invention, wherein the duplex acceptor DNA is from genomic DNA, linear DNA, artificial chromosomes, mammalian artificial chromosomes, bacterial artificial chromosomes, yeast artificial chromosomes, plant artificial chromosomes, nuclear chromosomal DNA, organellar DNA, and/or episomal DNA including plasmids.

Indeed the invention is applicable for the modification of any type of DNA, such as those disclosed above. The invention can be performed in vivo as well as ex vivo or in vitro, for example by subjecting the DNA to be modified with the donor oligonucleotide in the presence of proteins that are capable of targeted nucleotide exchange, for instance, and in particular, proteins that are functional in the mismatch repair mechanism of the cell.

The delivery of the oligonucleotide to a cell can be achieved via electroporation or other conventional techniques that are capable of delivering either to the nucleus or the cytoplasm. In vitro testing of the method of the present invention can be achieved using the Cell Free system as is described i.a. in WO01/87914, WO03/027265, WO99/58702, WO01/92512. The oligonucleotide may comprise methylated nucleotides, non-methylated nucleotides or both.

The invention is, in its broadest form, applicable for many purposes for altering a cell, correcting a mutation by restoration to wild type, inducing a mutation, inactivating an enzyme by disruption of coding region, modifying bioactivity of an enzyme by altering coding region, modifying a protein by disrupting the coding region.

The invention also relates to the use of oligonucleotides essentially as described hereinbefore, for altering a cell, correcting a mutation by restoration to wild type, inducing a mutation, inactivating an enzyme by disruption of coding region, modifying bioactivity of an enzyme by altering coding region, modifying a protein by disrupting the coding region, mismatch repair, targeted alteration of (plant) genetic material, including gene mutation, targeted gene repair and gene knockout. Preferably the method according to the invention is for targeted alteration of duplex acceptor DNA obtained from a plant, present in a plant, or to be presented to a plant.

The invention further relates to kits, comprising one or more oligonucleotides as defined herein elsewhere, optionally in combination with proteins that are capable of TNE.

In particular, the kit comprises instructions for targeted alteration of a duplex DNA. The instructions comprise essentially a description of the steps of the method according to the invention described herein.

In particular there is provided a kit comprising instruction for performing a method for targeted alteration of a duplex acceptor DNA according to the invention disclosed herein, wherein the kit further comprises an oligonucleotide for use in the method according to the invention. Preferably the oligonucleotide is an oligonucleotide as described herein.

In this embodiment, the kit may thus comprise an oligonucleotide that comprises at least one domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence which domain comprises, or is directly adjacent to at least one mismatch with respect to a target DNA sequence, and wherein said at least one mismatch is positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide and in additional comprises instruction to perform the method according to the invention, i.e. to perform TNE wherein an oligonucleotide having a mismatch relative to the target DNA is used and wherein the mismatch is positioned at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

As will be understood by the skilled person, by providing instructions at least informing that a mismatch is positioned at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide or 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end or 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end, and that the oligonucleotide can be used for alteration of a duplex DNA sequence, such kit comprising these instructions and the oligonucleotide are a kit within the scope of the above described and claimed kits.

The kit may, for example, also take the form of a website or a document providing instructions or information to perform targeted alteration of a duplex acceptor DNA according to the method of the invention, as described and disclosed herein, and the (separate) provision or offering of an oligonucleotide suitable for use in the method according to the invention, and as described and disclosed herein.//esp

In a preferred embodiment there is provided for a kit according to the invention, as described above, wherein the oligonucleotide is an oligonucleotide that, when combined with a duplex acceptor DNA sequence containing a first DNA sequence and a second DNA sequence which is the complement of the first DNA sequence, comprises a domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence, which domain comprises, or is directly adjacent to, at least one mismatch with respect to the first DNA sequence, and wherein said at least one mismatch is located at most 2, preferably at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said oligonucleotide, most preferably said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide.

EXAMPLES Example 1 TNE on a GFP Episome in Tobacco Protoplasts

TNE involves the introduction of oligonucleotides into cells where they induce a mutation in the genomic target locus, driven by a mismatch nucleotide in the oligonucleotide.

In the experiments below accuracy and efficiency of TNE was determined by performing TNE on an episome (plasmid) which carries a non-functional Green fluorescent protein (GFP) containing an in frame stop codon. Co-transfection of this plasmid together with an oligonucleotide designed to repair the stop codon should restore GFP expression and activity which was, in the experiments below, scored at a single cell level 24 hours after protoplast transfection. This first example describes experiments performed in tobacco protoplasts.

Materials and Methods

Constructs

The functional GFP open reading frame was synthesized and the codon usage was optimized for use in the Solanaceae. A variant of GFP was produced with a nucleotide change at position 82 (G to T) as shown in FIG. 1. This resulted in the production of an in frame stop codon and the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein is shown in FIG. 2. The GFP ORF (GFP WT) and GFP variant with the stop codon (GFP-STOP) were cloned as XhoI-SacI fragments in the multiple cloning site of a pUC based vector containing the CaMV 35S promoter for gene expression in plant cells. This resulted in the constructs pKG7381 (GFP-WT) and pKG7384 (GFP-STOP). In addition, GFP is translationally fused to a 6×HIS tag and an NLS (sequence nuclear localization signal) to facilitate accumulation of GFP protein in the protoplast nucleus and thus improve our ability to score GFP positive cells. These constructs are shown in FIG. 3.

Oligonucleotides

The oligonucleotides to repair the stop codon in the GFP gene are shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1  Oligonucleotides used in this study.  Oligo Sequence Orientation GFP7 T*G*A*A*CAGCTCCTCGCCCTTGC*T*C*A*C Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 5) GFP8 T*G*A*A*CAGCTCCTAGCCCTTGC*T*C*A*C Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 6) PB154 G*C*A*C*CACCCCGGTGAACAGCT*C*C*T*C Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 7) GFP3 G*T*G*A*GCAAGGGCGAGGAGCTG*T*T*C*A Sense (SEQ ID NO: 8) PB153 C*G*C*C*CTTGCTCACCATCTCGA*G*A*A*C Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 9) PB218 C*A*C*C*ACCCCGGTGAACAGCTC*C*T*C*A Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 10) PB219 A*C*C*A*CCCCGGTGAACAGCTCC*T*C*A*G Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 11) PB220 C*C*A*C*CCCGGTGAACAGCTCCT*C*A*G*C Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 12) PB221 G*C*A*C*CACCCCGGTGAACAGCT*C*L*T*C Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 13) The mismatch nucleotide in each oligonucleotide is underlined. The asterisks represent phosphorothioate (PS) linkages. The orientation of the oligonucleotide is given as sense (identical to the GFP coding sequence) or antisense (complementary to the GFP coding sequence). All oligonucleotides are shown in the 5′-3′ orientation. PB221 contains a LNA modification (L = LNA C) in addition to the mismatch. Isolation and Transfection of Tobacco Protoplasts

The source material for this example was tobacco in vitro shoot cultures, grown aseptically in glass jars (750 ml) in MS20 medium at a temperature of 25/20° C. (day/night) and a photon flux density of 80 μE.m⁻².s⁻¹ (photoperiod of 16/24 h). MS20 medium is basic Murashige and Skoog's medium (Murashige, T. and Skoog, F., Physiologia Plantarum, 15: 473-497, 1962) containing 2% (w/v) sucrose, no added hormones and 0.8% Difco agar. The shoots were subcultured every 3 weeks to fresh medium./esp

For the isolation of mesophyllprotoplasts, fully expanded leaves of 3-6 week old shoot cultures were harvested. The leaves are sliced into 1 mm thin strips, which were then transferred to large (100 mm×100 mm) Petri dishes containing 45 ml MDE basal medium for a preplasmolysis treatment of 30 min at room temperature. MDE basal medium contained 0.25 g KCl, 1.0 g MgSO₄.7H₂O, 0.136 g of KH₂PO₄, 2.5 g polyvinylpyrrolidone (MW 10,000), 6 mg naphthalene acetic acid and 2 mg 6-benzylaminopurine in a total volume of 900 ml. The osmolality of the solution was adjusted to 600 mOsm·kg⁻¹ with sorbitol, the pH to 5.7.

After preplasmolysis, 5 ml of enzyme stock was added to each Petri dish. The enzyme stock consisted of 750 mg Cellulase Onozuka R10, 500 mg driselase and 250 mg macerozyme R10 per 100 ml (Duchefa B. V., Haarlem, The Netherlands, e.g. products C8001 & M8002), filtered over Whatman paper and filter-sterilized. The Petri dishes were sealed and incubated overnight in the dark at 25° C. without movement to digest the cell walls.

The protoplast suspension was then passed through 500 μm and 100 μm sieves into 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks, mixed with an equal volume of KCl wash medium, and centrifuged in 50 ml tubes at 85×g for 10 min. KCl wash medium consisted of 2.0 g CaCl₂.2H₂O per liter and a sufficient quantity of KCl to bring the osmolality to 540 mOsm·kg⁻¹.

The centrifugation step was repeated twice, first with the protoplasts resuspended in MLm wash medium, which is the macro-nutrients of MS medium (Murashige, T. and Skoog, F., Physiologia Plantarum, 15: 473-497, 1962) at half the normal concentration, 2.2 g of CaCl₂.2H₂O per liter and a quantity of mannitol to bring the osmolality to 540 mOsm·kg⁻¹, and finally with the protoplasts resuspended in MLs medium, which is MLm medium with mannitol replaced by sucrose.

The protoplasts were recovered from the floating band in sucrose medium and resuspended in an equal volume of KCl wash medium. Their densities were counted using a haemocytometer. Subsequently, the protoplasts were centrifuged again in 10 ml glass tubes at 85×g for 5 min and the pellets resuspended at a density of 1×10⁵ protoplasts ml⁻¹ in electroporation medium.

Protoplast Electroporation

A BioRad Gene Pulser apparatus was used for electroporation. Using PHBS as an electroporation medium (10 mM Hepes, pH 7.2; 0.2 M mannitol, 150 mM NaCl; 5 mM CaCl2) and with a protoplast density in the electroporation mixture of ca. 1×10⁶ per ml, the electroporation settings were 250V (625 V cm⁻¹) charge and 800 μF capacitance with a recovery time between pulse and cultivation of 10 minutes. For each electroporation ca. 2 μg oligonucleotide and 20 μg KG7381 or KG7384 were used per 800 microliter electroporation.

After the electroporation treatment, the protoplasts were placed on ice for 30 min to recover, then resuspended in T₀ culture medium at a density of 1×10⁵ protoplasts ml⁻¹ and incubated at 21° C. overnight in the dark. T₀ culture medium contained (per liter, pH 5.7) 950 mg KNO₃, 825 mg NH₄NO₃, 220 mg CaCl₂.2H₂O, 185 mg MgSO₄.7H₂O, 85 mg KH₂PO₄, 27.85 mg FeSO₄.7H₂O, 37.25 mg Na₂EDTA.2H₂O, the micro-nutrients according to Heller's medium (Heller, R., Ann Sci Nat Bot Biol Veg 14: 1-223, 1953), vitamins according to Morel and Wetmore's medium (Morel, G. and R. H. Wetmore, Amer. J. Bot. 38: 138-40, 1951), 2% (w/v) sucrose, 3 mg naphthalene acetic acid, 1 mg 6-benzylaminopurine and a quantity of mannitol to bring the osmolality to 540 mOsm·kg⁻¹ The protoplasts were examined under the UV microscope 20 hours after electroporation to visualize the GFP signal in the nucleus.

Alternatively, PEG treatment could be used to introduce the plasmid and oligonucleotide DNA into tobacco protoplasts. Methods to achieve this are well known in the literature.

Results

When the construct KG7381 (GFP-WT) was electroporated to tobacco protoplasts a strong GFP signal located in the nucleus after approximately 20 hours of incubation was observed. This signal is due to the strong transient expression of the GFP ORF. This signal disappeared within 48 hours, presumably due to degradation/elimination of the plasmid DNA from the cell. In a typical experiment, approximately 30% of the protoplasts showed a GFP signal and this represents the maximal electroporation efficiency. No GFP signal was observed when KG7384 (GFP-STOP) was introduced into tobacco protoplasts.

Once the experimental setup had been validated, experiments were performed whereby KG7384 was introduced into tobacco protoplasts in combination with several different oligonucleotide designs with alternative positioning of the mismatch nucleotide.

When KG7384 was co-introduced with oligonucleotides carrying a mismatch to repair the introduced stop codon we did indeed observe restored GFP expression. GFP expression was not observed when KG7384 was co-introduced with an oligonucleotide lacking a mismatch. It was concluded that the TNE cellular machinery is able to use the oligonucleotide to alter the sequence of GFP-STOP, thus restoring the GFP activity in the cells.

The repair efficiency of each oligonucleotide tested is shown in FIG. 4. In each independent experiment KG7381 was used to determine the maximum transformation efficiency and this was then used to correct the repair efficiencies of each of the oligonucleotides. For instance, if the number of GFP repair events with an oligonucleotide was equal to the number of GFP positive cells after transfection of KG7384, then the percentage GFP repair would be 100%.

From the data it is concluded that repair only occurs when a mismatch nucleotide is present on the oligonucleotide, as no repair was observed when using GFP8. Repair was observed in approximately 30% of the transformed cells when the oligonucleotide contained a single mismatch in the center (GFP7). Unexpected, we found that the TNE efficiency was enhanced when the mismatch was located at the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide (PB154). In this case, the repair efficiency was the highest observed in the current experiments. Surprisingly, an oligonucleotide with the mismatch at the 5′ end (PB153) gave a very low repair efficiency. GFP3 was almost as efficient as GFP7, PB218 and PB221.

Next a series of oligonucleotides (PB218, PB219, PB220) with the mismatch at position −1, −2 or −3 respectively compared with the 3′ end of the oligonucleotide were designed and tested. When the mismatch was located at the −3 position, the repair efficiency dropped below that of GFP7. PB218 (−1 position) was as efficient as GFP7. PB219 (−2 position) gave a repair efficiency equivalent to PB154. Therefore, while a mismatch at the 3′ end gives maximal high repair efficiency, positioning of the mismatch at internal positions −1, −2 can give efficient TNE efficiency as well.

Next an oligonucleotide (PB221) with a LNA modification at the −2 position together with a 3′ mismatch was tested. LNA nucleotides increase the affinity of an oligonucleotide for its target The results are shown in FIG. 5.

Example 2 TNE at a YFP Episome in Tomato Protoplasts

Example 1 showed that an oligonucleotide with a mismatch at the 3′ end is efficient in performing TNE. In order to show the broad scope of the use of the method according to the invention and to exclude that the increased TNE efficiency observed with the 3′ oligonucleotide is due to the specific sequence of the oligonucleotide used in example 1 it is important to show that oligonucleotides with an alternative sequence but also with mismatch positioned according to the invention, e.g. a 3′ mismatch, are active in a TNE assay. In addition, it is valuable to demonstrate that the observed effect also occurs in other plant species and so it was decided to perform similar experiments in tomato protoplasts.

Constructs

Versions of YFP-WT and YFP-STOP, with a nucleotide change located at position 186 (C to T) resulting in a stop codon were generated. Both the nucleotide sequence of the YFP-STOP gene (FIG. 5) and the translated protein sequence (FIG. 6) are shown. Although both the GFP and YFP genes share significant sequence homology this stop codon was designed at a different position in the coding sequence so that the oligonucleotides would have a completely different sequence to those used in the GFP experiments. These genes were then cloned into a plant expression vector so that the YFP ORF's were expressed by the viral 35S promoter. An oligonucleotide with a mismatch at its 3′ end was designed to convert the T at position 186 in the YFP-STOP construct to a C and thus restore YFP activity.

The sequence of the oligonucleotides used to repair the STOP codon in YFP (PB212) is shown below. The phosphorothioate linkages are represented by asterisks. The mismatch in the oligonucleotide is underlined.

(SEQ ID NO: 14) PB212 G*A*T*G*AACTTGAGAGTAAGCTT*T*C*C*G Tomato Protoplast Isolation and Purification

Isolation and regeneration of tomato leaf protoplasts has been previously described (Shahin, 1985; Tan et al., 1987a; Tan et al., 1987b) and the solutions required can be found in these publications. Briefly, Solanum lycopersicum seeds were sterilized with 0.1% hypochlorite grown in vitro on sterile MS20 medium in a photoperiod of 16/8 hours at 2000 lux at 25° C. and 50-70% relative humidity. 1 g of freshly harvested leaves were placed in a dish with 5 ml CPW9M and, using a scalpel blade, cut perpendicular to the main stem every mm. These were transferred a fresh plate of 25 ml enzyme solution (CPW9M containing 2% cellulose onozuka RS, 0.4% macerozyme onozuka R10, 2.4-D (2 mg/ml), NAA (2 mg/ml), BAP (2 mg/ml) pH5.8) and digestion proceeded overnight at 25° C. in the dark. The protoplasts were then freed by placing them on an orbital shaker (40-50 rpm) for 1 hour. Protoplasts were separated from cellular debris by passing them through a 50 μm sieve, and washing the sieve 2× with CPW9M. Protoplasts were centrifuged at 85 g, the supernatant discarded, and then taken up in half the volume of CPW9M. Protoplasts were finally taken up in 3 ml CPW9M and 3 ml CPW18S was then added carefully to avoid mixing the two solutions. The protoplasts were spun at 85 g for 10 mins and the viable protoplasts floating at the interphase layer were collected using a long pasteur pipette. The protoplast volume was increased to 10 ml by adding CPW9M and the number of recovered protoplasts was determined in a haemocytometer. The protoplast suspension is centrifuged at 85×g for 10 minutes at 5° C. The supernatant is discarded and the protoplast pellet resuspended to a final concentration of 10⁶.mL-1 in CPW9M wash medium. In a 10 mL tube, 250 μL of protoplast suspension +/−12.5 μg dsRNA and 250 μl of PEG solution (40% PEG4000 (Fluka #81240), 0.1M Ca(NO3)2, 0.4M mannitol) are gently but thoroughly mixed. After 20 min. incubation at room temperature, 5 mL cold 0.275 M Ca(NO3)2 is added dropwise. The protoplast suspension is centrifuged for 10 min at 85×g at 4° C. and the supernatant discarded. Tomato protoplasts were then transferred to 4 cm Petri dishes containing 4 ml of K8p culture medium and examined after 24 hrs for YFP expression using a fluorescence microscope.

Results

The results of these experiments are shown in FIG. 7. We were able to confirm that an oligonucleotide of a different sequence with a mismatch at the 3′ end was indeed able to restore YFP expression in tomato protoplasts.

Example 3 Effects of PS Linkage on TNE Efficiency

This example shows that it is not required that the oligonucleotide according to the invention incorporates nucleotides having phosphorothioate linkages nor that is it required that the oligonucleotide according to the invention incorporates any other type of modification.

Methods

Tomato mesophyllprotoplasts were isolated from young leaves of tomato in vitro plants. Reporter constructs harbouring an eYFP(stop) gene whose expression was driven by the CaMV 35S promoter and oligonucleotides were transfected into tomato protoplasts by a PEG-mediated method. After overnight incubation under dark at 30° C. in a growth chamber, infected protoplasts were observed using a fluorescent microscope equipped with a YFP filter set. The number of protoplasts emitting yellow fluorescence was scored and the TNE efficiency was calculated by dividing the number of yellow protoplasts by the number of transfected protoplasts.

Sequence of Oligonucleotides Tested:

(SEQ ID NO: 15) PB72 C*A*T*G*CATGCATGCATGCATGC*A*T*G*C 25 mer, PS, Nonsense (=control) (SEQ ID NO: 16) PB243 G*A*T*G*AACTTAAGTGTAAGTTT*A*C*C*G 25 mer, PS, 3′ MM (=mismatch) Antisense (SEQ ID NO: 17) TF8 GATGAACTTAAGTGTAAGTTTACCG 25 mer, 3′ MM Antisense *represents a phosphorothioate linkage

The TNE reaction caused by PB243, and TF8 converts the target sequence from TAA to TAC. Oligonucleotides PB243 and TF8 were thus designed to repair the STOP codon in YFP, wherein PB72 comprises PS linkages, and TF8 does not comprise PS linkages. As shown in FIG. 8, PB243 was able to restore YFP expression with an efficiency of 20.13% whereas TF8 was able to restore YFP expression with an efficiency of 5.83%, thus considerably higher (almost 15-fold and almost 4-fold respectively) as compared to background level of 1.43 of the nonsense oligonucleotide.

This example thus shows that using oligonucleotides, with or without modification, like PS linkages, can be used in TNE.

LITERATURE

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The invention claimed is:
 1. A method for targeted alteration of a duplex acceptor DNA sequence comprising the step of combining the duplex acceptor DNA sequence with a donor oligonucleotide, wherein the duplex acceptor DNA sequence comprises a first DNA sequence and a second DNA sequence, which is the complement of the first DNA sequence, and wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises at least one domain that is capable of hybridizing to the first DNA sequence, and wherein the domain comprises or is directly adjacent to at least one mismatch with respect to the first DNA sequence, and wherein said at least one mismatch is positioned at most 2 nucleotides from the 3′ end of said donor oligonucleotide.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the donor oligonucleotide is complementary to the first DNA sequence with the exception of a mismatch.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises at least one section that contains at least one modified nucleotide selected from the group consisting of a base modification, a backbone modification or a sugar modification.
 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the modified nucleotide has a higher binding affinity to its complementary nucleotide as compared to a naturally occurring A, C, T, or G nucleotide to its complementary nucleotide, and wherein the modified nucleotide binds stronger to a nucleotide in the opposite position in the first DNA sequence as compared to a naturally occurring nucleotide complementary to the nucleotide in the opposite position in the first DNA sequence and/or wherein the modified nucleotide is a nuclease resistant nucleotide.
 5. The method according to claim 3, wherein the modified nucleotide is selected from the group consisting of Locked Nucleic Acids (LNA) or nucleotides having phosphorothioate bonds.
 6. The method according to claim 3, wherein the at least one modified nucleotide is located at least one nucleotide from the at least one mismatch.
 7. The method according to claim 3, wherein the at least one modified nucleotide is a 3′ or 5′ end base modification.
 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises at least two modified nucleotides.
 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises at least three modified nucleotides.
 10. The method according to claim 8, wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises at least four modified nucleotides.
 11. The method according to claim 8, wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises at least five modified nucleotides.
 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one mismatch is not a modified nucleotide.
 13. The method according to claim 1, wherein the donor oligonucleotide comprises 2, 3, or 4 mismatches.
 14. The method according to claim 1, wherein the duplex acceptor DNA sequence is combined with the donor oligonucleotide within a cell selected from the group consisting of a prokaryotic cell, a bacterial cell, an eukaryotic cell, a plant cell, an animal cell, a yeast cell, a fungal cell, a rodent cell, a human cell, a non-human cell, and an embryonic cell.
 15. The method according to claim 1, wherein the duplex acceptor DNA sequence is from a prokaryotic organism, a bacterium, an eukaryotic organism, a plant, an animal, a yeast, a fungus, a rodent, or a human.
 16. The method according to claim 1, wherein the alteration is a deletion, a substitution and/or an insertion of at least one nucleotide.
 17. The method according to claim 1, wherein the duplex acceptor DNA sequence is from genomic DNA, linear DNA, mammalian artificial chromosomes, bacterial artificial chromosomes, yeast artificial chromosomes, plant artificial chromosomes, nuclear chromosomal DNA, organellar DNA, plasmid DNA or episomal DNA.
 18. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method is useful for altering a cell, correcting a mutation by restoration to wild type, inducing a mutation, inactivating an enzyme by disruption of coding region, modifying bioactivity of an enzyme by altering coding region, modifying a protein by disrupting the coding region, mismatch repair, targeted alteration of plant genetic material, including gene mutation, targeted gene repair and gene knockout.
 19. The method according to claim 1, wherein said at least one mismatch is positioned at most 1 nucleotide from the 3′ end of said donor oligonucleotide.
 20. The method according to claim 1, wherein said at least one mismatch is at the 3′ end of the donor oligonucleotide. 